Bookmark this page. It is a reference for every other article in this series.
A
Activity
The specific actions performed as part of a programme intervention training sessions, household surveys, system configuration, community mobilisation events. Activities are what the programme does. They are distinct from outputs (what activities produce) and outcomes (what changes as a result). Most programmes over-report activities and under-report outcomes.
After-Action Review (AAR)
A structured review conducted after a significant event to document what happened, what worked, what did not, and what should change. AARs are among the most valuable learning mechanisms in global health and among the most consistently under-resourced.
Annual Work Plan (AWP)
A time-bound operational document translating programme strategic objectives into specific activities, responsibilities, timelines, and budgets for a single programme year typically the primary M&E accountability document at the operational level.
Assumption
A condition that must hold true for the programme's theory of change to be valid, but which is outside the programme's direct control. Assumptions are made explicit in logframes. If an assumption fails, it undermines the causal pathway from activities to outcomes regardless of programme quality.
B
Baseline
The measured value of an indicator before any intervention. Baseline data is the reference point against which progress is measured. Without a baseline, it is impossible to assess whether the programme produced change you can only describe current status, not change from a starting point.
Beneficiary
The individual, group, or population intended to receive direct benefit from a programme intervention. Disaggregating beneficiary data by sex, age, geographic location, and socioeconomic status is essential for equity-focused M&E.
C
Causal Pathway
The logical sequence linking programme activities to their intended long-term impact also called the theory of change. The logframe is one tool for representing a causal pathway formally. See Logframe in Global Health.
Completeness (Data)
The proportion of expected data values that are actually recorded. In disease surveillance, reporting completeness the percentage of expected facility reports actually submitted is a key data quality indicator. See DHIS2 Data Quality.
Coverage
The proportion of the target population reached by a programme intervention. High coverage among accessible populations with low coverage among hard-to-reach populations masks equity gaps that aggregate figures conceal.
D
Data Quality
The degree to which data accurately and completely represents the phenomena it is intended to measure. Standard dimensions: accuracy, completeness, timeliness, consistency, integrity, and precision. See DHIS2 Data Quality.
Data Quality Audit (DQA)
A systematic review comparing source data (facility registers, investigation forms) against reported data (DHIS2 entries, aggregate reports). Standard practice in WHO and USAID-funded programmes, typically conducted quarterly.
Data Triangulation
The use of multiple data sources to verify consistency of findings. If routine facility data, household surveys, and community surveillance data all point to the same conclusion, confidence is higher than if only one source is available.
Denominator
The population or total count against which a numerator is expressed as a rate, ratio, or proportion. Coverage indicators are only as meaningful as the population estimates on which they are based. Getting the denominator right is critical.
E
Effectiveness
The degree to which a programme achieves its intended outcomes under real-world conditions. Distinct from efficacy (which measures outcomes under controlled conditions). A vaccine with 95% efficacy may have 70% effectiveness in a programme context due to cold chain failures and service delivery gaps.
Evaluation
A systematic and objective assessment of a programme its design, implementation, and results to determine relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact, and sustainability. Evaluation is periodic and time-bound, distinct from monitoring (which is continuous).
I
Impact
The long-term, significant change attributable to a programme typically measured at population health level (mortality rates, disease burden, DALYs). Impact operates on a timescale that often exceeds programme funding cycles and is difficult to attribute to a single programme.
Indicator
A quantitative or qualitative measure used to assess the degree of change produced by a programme. Indicators translate abstract objectives into observable and measurable terms. See How to Design M&E Indicators.
Indicator Reference Sheet
A document defining each indicator precisely name, definition, numerator, denominator, data source, collection method, frequency, responsible party, disaggregation, baseline, and target. Without indicator reference sheets, the same indicator is measured differently by different people. This is the most common cause of data inconsistency in multi-partner programmes.
Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR)
A WHO-recommended framework for district-level disease surveillance and response in Africa, adopted by all African Union member states. See Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response: A Systems Perspective.
L
Logframe (Logical Framework)
A matrix presenting programme logic from activities to impact alongside indicators, means of verification, and assumptions. The most widely used M&E planning tool in global health. See Logframe in Global Health: From Design to Use.
O
Outcome
A medium-term change in knowledge, attitudes, skills, behaviours, or practices among beneficiaries or systems as a result of programme outputs. The most common M&E error is reporting outputs as outcomes.
Output
The direct products or deliverables of programme activities training sessions held, health workers trained, surveillance reports submitted. Outputs are necessary but not sufficient for outcomes. A health worker trained (output) may or may not change their practice (outcome).
R
Results-Based Management (RBM)
A management approach focused on achieving defined results particularly outcomes and impact rather than delivering activities and outputs. See Results-Based Management in Global Health.
Results Framework
A visual or tabular representation of a programme's intended results the causal hierarchy from outputs through outcomes to impact with associated indicators and targets. The foundation of the M&E system.
S
SMART Indicators
Indicators that are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. The standard quality criterion for indicator design in global health frameworks.
Surveillance
The continuous, systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health-related data for use in public health action including outbreak detection, disease trend monitoring, and intervention evaluation.
T
Target
The defined value of an indicator that a programme aims to achieve by a specified point in time. Targets should be grounded in historical performance, comparator data, and programme theory not set arbitrarily or to match funder expectations.
Theory of Change
A comprehensive explanation of how and why a programme's activities are expected to lead to its intended outcomes and impact, making explicit the causal assumptions and preconditions at each step.
Timeliness (Data)
The degree to which data is available within the timeframe required for its intended use. In outbreak surveillance, timeliness is critical: case data arriving 48 hours late misses the investigation window for contact tracing.
Cross-reference: All terms defined here are used consistently across How to Design M&E Indicators, Logframe in Global Health, and Results-Based Management.